Re: Hermathena and Cicero

Conrad,

> Your dictionary researches
> are interesting to the extent
> that they indicate no great
> precision, in times long gone
> by, in distinguishing between
> copper and bronze... and then
> there is brass as I earlier
> pointed out.

Yes. And I think this metal may hold the key, too! <bg>

I spent most of today reading in early issues of the Royal Society's 
_Philosophical Transactions_ and in Baroque-era encyclopedias (through 
mid-C18) about copper, bronze, and brass, and have come to the 
conclusion that Elizabeth See Watson's translation of the Latin of 
Pope Julius III

	"... cum suis affigurationibus pulcherrimis in aes incisis
	..."

(as written in 1555), and that of Lilio Gregorio Giraldi

	"... elegantissime graphide compingi facit subtilissime in
	aere adeo ..."

(as published in 1548-1551), is in error.

I don't think either phrase should be translated as "bronze".

But I'm not sure that copper is right, either.

"Brass" is a possibility (especially for the Latin used by Julius 
III), since the "divers antient species and denominations of brass" 
listed in George Lewis Scott's 1753 Supplement to Chambers' 
_Cyclopaedia_ all begin with "aes", and Scott gives "aes" as the 
proper translation for brass. I.e.,

	"BRASS, in a more extensive sense, includes copper, and all
	the mixtures or alloys thereof with other minerals.
	
	"In which sense, *brass* amounts to the same with the Roman
	*aes*, and the French *airain*. ..."

&

	"We meet with divers antient species and denominations of
	*brass*; as,
	
	"*Cyprian* BRASS, *AEs Cyprium*, a copper produced in the
	island of Cyprus.
	
	"*Dodonean* BRASS, *AEs Dodoneum*, that used in the sacred
	caldrons in the temple of Apollo at Dodona.

	"*Corybantic* BRASS, *AEs Corybantium*, denotes the brazen
	rattles used by the Corybantes in the mysteries of Cybele.

	"*Cast* BRASS, *AEs Caldarium*, that only melted, otherwise
	called *pot-brass*, *aes olarium*, and not malleable; being
	that whereof pans and kettles were made.

	"*Hammered* BRASS, *AEs Regulare*, that capable both of being
	cast and hammered; by which it stood opposed to *aes
	caldarium*.

	"*Wrought* BRASS, *AEs factum*, that manufactured into
	vessels and other works....

	"*Unwrought* BRASS, *AEs infectum*, that still in the mass,
	unformed.

	"*Hepatic* BRASS, *AEs Hepatizon*, that which is of a liver
	colour; or approaching thereto. Some confound this with the
	*AEs Corinthium*; others, with more probability, take it to
	be the same with what the moderns call *bronze*.

	"*White* BRASS, *AEs Candidum*, a purer and whiter kind of
	metal, said to be found under the veins of silver, bearing
	some analogy to the Venetian talc....

	"*Yellow* BRASS, *AEs Flavum*, was our common *brass*,
	prepared with cadmia, or lapis calaminaris.

	"*Glittering* BRASS, *AEs Pyropum*, a sort which shone or
	appeared firy, so as to resemble a carbuncle...."

In contrast, Scott describes "Bronze" as

	"a factitious metal, chiefly used for the casting of statues
	and figures.

	"The word is French, where it is used more extensively, so as
	to include all the compositions of brass or copper, as for
	guns, bells, pots, or the like....

	"It is formed from the Italian *bronzo*, which signifies the
	same.

	"Copper medals are frequently called medals of *bronze*.
	Medallists distinguish the large, middle, and little
	*bronze*.

	"The composition of *bronze* is different: for the finest
	statues, the mixture is half copper, and half brass, or
	latten. The Egyptians, whom some make the inventors of the
	art, used two thirds brass, and one third copper...."

I have found references to silver plates + pewter plates + brass 
plates -- all used for early European printing -- but no mention of 
bronze plates. E.g., from Chambers' _Cyclopaedia_ article for 
"Printing" (1728 edn.):

	"... Beside the several kinds of Letters and Characters above-
	mentioned, used in *Printing*; they have likewise Rules for
	blank Lines, Borders, and Head and Tail-Pieces, accommodated
	to the several kinds of Letters.

	"The *Rules* for blank Lines are of Brass, and made exactly
	the height of the Letter; otherwise they will either hinder
	the neighbouring Letters from *printing*, or will themselves
	be hindred by 'em. These the Compositor occasionally cuts
	into proper Lengths, as his Work requires.

	"The *Borders* are a kind of Ornaments in form of long Bars,
	serving for the Divisions of Books, Chapters, *&c.* Their
	Depth is proportioned to the Letter, and their Length
	adjusted to the Page; for being composed of several moveable
	Pieces, 'tis easy lengthening or shortening 'em.

	"The *Head* and *Tail Pieces*, cut either in Wood or Pewter,
	are Compartiments used at the beginnings and endings of
	Books...."

(I've been studying C17 head- and tail-piece designs for quite a while 
now, and had forgotten this little tidbit about pewter engravings, so 
this was an important re-discovery for me! <g>)

Certainly by C17, as everybody already knows, copper plates were the 
standard material for engraving/etching graphics, and descriptions 
such as Chambers' (again, from the 1728 edn. of his _Cyclopaedia_) 
make no mention of any other kind of metal used for print-making with 
the rolling-press:

	"*Method of* PRINTING *from Copper-Plates*.

	"The Ink being prepared, they take a little Quantity of it on
	a *Rubber*, made of Linnen Rags, strongly bound about one
	another; and therewith smear the whole Face of the Plate, as
	it lies on a Grate, over a Charcoal-fire.

	"The Plate sufficiently inked, they first wipe it coarsely
	over with a foul Rag, then with the Palm of the left Hand,
	then of the right; and, to dry the Hand, and forward the
	wiping, rub it from time to time on Whiting.

	"In wiping the Plate perfectly clean, yet without taking the
	Ink out of the Engraving, consists a good part of the Address
	of the Workman. The *French* Printers use no Whiting, as
	being detrimental to the Colour of the Ink; nor do they lay
	the Plate on the Grate to warm, till after inking and wiping
	it.

	"The Plate thus prepared, is laid on a thick Paper, fitted
	upon the Plank of the Press: Over the Plate is laid the
	Paper, first moisten'd, to receive the Impression; and over
	the Paper, two or three Folds of Blanketing, or other Stuff.

	"Thus disposed, the Arms of the Cross are pull'd; and by that
	means, the Plate with its Furniture pass'd thro between the
	Rollers; which pinching very strongly, yet equably, presses
	the moisten'd Paper into the Strokes of the Engraving, whence
	it licks out the Ink.

	"Some Works require being pass'd twice thro' the Press,
	others only once, according as the Graving is more or less
	deep, or the greater or less degree of Blackness the Print is
	desired to have.

	"It must be observ'd, that the stronger, and thicker the Ink
	is, the stronger must the Rollers pinch the Plate: This
	tempts many of the Workmen to use a thinner Oil, in order to
	save Labour; which proves prejudicial to the Impression.

	"The wetting of the Paper ought to be done two or three days
	before *printing* it, to render it the more supple and
	mellow: As the Prints are drawn off, they are hung up to dry
	on Lines, *&c.*

	"Lastly, after the Number of Prints desired, have been
	wrought off from the Plate; they rub it over with Oil of
	Olives, to prevent its rusting, and set it by against a new
	Impression. If the Strokes of the Graving be perceived full
	of Ink harden'd therein, in the Course of the *Printing*;
	they boil it well in a Lye, e'er the Oil be apply'd."

Similarly, Chambers' _Cyclopaedia_ article on "Engraving" describes 
the printer's plates as being of copper. No alternate materials are 
mentioned.

Also, Chambers' article on "Copper" describes a refined version, known 
as Rose Copper (Latin name, AEs Pelosum), with additional references 
to "aes" metals:

	"COPPER, a hard, dry, heavy, ductile Metal; found in Mines,
	in several Parts of *Europe*, but most abundantly in
	*Sweden*. See METAL.

	"*Copper* is of all Metals the most ductile and malleable
	after Gold and Silver; and abounds much in Vitriol and
	Sulphur. See VITRIOL, *&c.*

	"The Chymists call it *Venus*; as supposing it to have some
	more immediate Relation to that Planet. See VENUS.

	"By an Analysis it appears compos'd of a Sulphur ill
	digested, a yellowish Mercury, and a red Salt.

	"'Tis found both in Dust and in Stones, each of which are
	first well wash'd, to separate 'em from the Earth wherewith
	they are mix'd. In this State 'tis call'd *Virgin Copper*.

	"After washing 'tis melted, and the melted Matter run into a
	kind of Molds, to form large Blocks, by some call'd
	*Salmons*, and by others *Pigs of Copper*. This is the
	ordinary *Copper*.

	"To render it more pure and beautiful, they melt it again
	once or twice; some of its coarse earthy Parts being left at
	each Fusion, and a Quantity of Tin and Antimony added in
	each. In this State 'tis call'd *Rose Copper*, in Latin *AEs
	Pelosum*.

	"Of a Mixture of this and *Lapis Calaminaris*, is form'd
	Brass, which the *French* call *yellow Copper*, in
	contradistinction to *Natural Copper*, which they call *red
	Copper*. See BRASS.

	"*Copper* melted together with 22 or 23 Pounds of fine Tin
	*per* Quintal, makes Bell Metal. See BELL *Metal*.

	"*Copper* melted with Calamine, quantity for quantity, makes
	Brass. See CALAMINE.

	"*Copper* and Brass melted in equal Quantities, make what the
	*French* call *Bronze*, used for Figures, Statues, *&c.* See
	FOUNDERY.

	"*Copper* turns white by an Unction of Spirit of Wine and
	Orpiment. *Pliny* says there is a *Copper* naturally white,
	found underneath the Silver Mines.

	"*The Use of Copper* is very extensive: Among other Works of
	*Copper* may be reckon'd those of Brass, Bell Metal, Pot
	Metal, *&c.* which are all Compositions where *Copper* makes
	the prevailing Ingredient.

	"The Chymists call *Saffron of Copper*, or *Crocus veneris*,
	a Preparation of *Copper* Plates stratify'd with decrepitated
	Salt, in a Crucible; after having extinguish'd 'em in Water,
	and scrap'd 'em with Iron Brushes. This Saffron is very red,
	and is used in Emplaisters to mundify Wounds and Ulcers. See
	CROCUS.

	"Some Chymists have pretended that the Spirit of *Venus* was
	a real Alkahest, capable of dissolving wholly Pearls, Corals,
	Crabs Eyes, *&c.* without any Diminution of its force; but
	Experience has shewn the contrary. See ALCAHEST.

	"The Calx of Brass, called *AEs Ustum*, and sometimes also
	*Saffron of Venus*, is nothing but *Copper* calcin'd in a
	violent Fire. See AEs USTUM.

	"Verdigrease is a Rust of *Copper*. See VERDIGREASE.

	"M. *Becher* observes, that the drinking of acid Liquors,
	even out of common Silver Plate, is very unwholesom, by
	reason of the Mixture of *Copper* therein; much more out of
	Vessels of *Copper*.

	"The *Indian* Physicians are said to set a great Value on
	Talc and yellow Copper; which, they say, consumes the most
	viscid Humours, and removes the most obstinate Obstructions."

FWIW, I thought the factoid about Swedish domination of the copper 
trade was interesting, particularly in light of a 1693 Royal Society 
journal article on "The Method, Manner and Order of the Transmutation 
of Copper into Brass" in which the author argued that copper 
manufacture offered untapped economic opportunity for England:

	"We have in the North parts of *England* much *Copper*, which
	places, though as they now lie, are barren and poor, might be
	rendred rich and useful, if a sufficient Encouragement were
	given to the Digging and Raising thereof, and the Poor
	thereabout might be put in a good way of Livelyhood, as well
	as several other Advantages to be brought thereby to the
	Publick.

	"The *Calamine* is digged out of certain Mines, of which
	there are several in the *West* of *England*, (as about
	*Mendip*, &c.) which lie about 20 Foot deep, as Coals do,
	thence brought up by Sea. ... *Calamine* Stones were
	heretofore fetch'd from *Poland*, but since fetcht from hence
	by the *Dutch*.

	"The Manufacture of *Brass* was privately kept in *Germany*
	for many hundred years, wherein thousands were employed and
	well maintained, some having thereby raised themselves to
	great Estates.

	"The *Dutch* may not import (an Act of Parliament expresly
	forbidding them) the *Copper* nor the *Calamine* Stone; but
	contrary to the Ends, and perhaps the meaning of the said
	Act, and more to the Publick Disadvantage, they mingle and
	manufacture those two Ingredients (which are of Foreign
	Growth to them) and by that Evasion import them hither: And
	the great Manufactures of Wire, and several other Commodities
	arising of those important Materials."

One further discovery of note:

	"*Bath* METAL, call'd also *Princes* METAL, is a kind of
	factitious *Metal*, composed of the finest and purest Brass
	mix'd with Tin, or rather with some Mineral; whereby it
	becomes more disposed to receive a Polish, Lustre, *&c.* as
	also fitter to be gilt. See GILDING.

	"'Tis said to have been invented by Prince *Rupert*, whence
	its Name."

And yes, that would be the same Prince Rupert of "mezzo-tinto" fame. <vbg>


Deborah
_____

Deborah Taylor-Pearce
[email protected]

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