Why Socialism? by Albert Einstein

Why Socialism?

by Albert Einstein

This essay was originally published in the first issue of Monthly=20
Review (May 1949).

Is it advisable for one who is not an expert on economic and social=20
issues to express views on the subject of socialism? I believe for a=20
number of reasons that it is.

Let us first consider the question from the point of view of=20
scientific knowledge. It might appear that there are no essential=20
methodological differences between astronomy and economics:=20
scientists in both fields attempt to discover laws of general=20
acceptability for a circumscribed group of phenomena in order to make=20
the interconnection of these phenomena as clearly understandable as=20
possible. But in reality such methodological differences do exist.=20
The discovery of general laws in the field of economics is made=20
difficult by the circumstance that observed economic phenomena are=20
often affected by many factors which are very hard to evaluate=20
separately. In addition, the experience which has accumulated since=20
the beginning of the so-called civilized period of human history has=97
as is well known=97been largely influenced and limited by causes which=20
are by no means exclusively economic in nature. For example, most of=20
the major states of history owed their existence to conquest. The=20
conquering peoples established themselves, legally and economically,=20
as the privileged class of the conquered country. They seized for=20
themselves a monopoly of the land ownership and appointed a=20
priesthood from among their own ranks. The priests, in control of=20
education, made the class division of society into a permanent=20
institution and created a system of values by which the people were=20
thenceforth, to a large extent unconsciously, guided in their social=20
behavior.=20

But historic tradition is, so to speak, of yesterday; nowhere have we=20
really overcome what Thorstein Veblen called "the predatory phase" of=20
human development. The observable economic facts belong to that phase=20
and even such laws as we can derive from them are not applicable to=20
other phases. Since the real purpose of socialism is precisely to=20
overcome and advance beyond the predatory phase of human development,=20
economic science in its present state can throw little light on the=20
socialist society of the future.
Second, socialism is directed towards a social-ethical end. Science,=20
however, cannot create ends and, even less, instill them in human=20
beings; science, at most, can supply the means by which to attain=20
certain ends. But the ends themselves are conceived by personalities=20
with lofty ethical ideals and=97if these ends are not stillborn, but=20
vital and vigorous=97are adopted and carried forward by those many=20
human beings who, half unconsciously, determine the slow evolution of=20
society.

For these reasons, we should be on our guard not to overestimate=20
science and scientific methods when it is a question of human=20
problems; and we should not assume that experts are the only ones who=20
have a right to express themselves on questions affecting the=20
organization of society.=20

Innumerable voices have been asserting for some time now that human=20
society is passing through a crisis, that its stability has been=20
gravely shattered. It is characteristic of such a situation that=20
individuals feel indifferent or even hostile toward the group, small=20
or large, to which they belong. In order to illustrate my meaning,=20
let me record here a personal experience. I recently discussed with=20
an intelligent and well-disposed man the threat of another war, which=20
in my opinion would seriously endanger the existence of mankind, and=20
I remarked that only a supra-national organization would offer=20
protection from that danger. Thereupon my visitor, very calmly and=20
coolly, said to me: "Why are you so deeply opposed to the=20
disappearance of the human race?"

I am sure that as little as a century ago no one would have so=20
lightly made a statement of this kind. It is the statement of a man=20
who has striven in vain to attain an equilibrium within himself and=20
has more or less lost hope of succeeding. It is the expression of a=20
painful solitude and isolation from which so many people are=20
suffering in these days. What is the cause? Is there a way out?

It is easy to raise such questions, but difficult to answer them with=20
any degree of assurance. I must try, however, as best I can, although=20
I am very conscious of the fact that our feelings and strivings are=20
often contradictory and obscure and that they cannot be expressed in=20
easy and simple formulas.

Man is, at one and the same time, a solitary being and a social=20
being. As a solitary being, he attempts to protect his own existence=20
and that of those who are closest to him, to satisfy his personal=20
desires, and to develop his innate abilities. As a social being, he=20
seeks to gain the recognition and affection of his fellow human=20
beings, to share in their pleasures, to comfort them in their=20
sorrows, and to improve their conditions of life. Only the existence=20
of these varied, frequently conflicting, strivings accounts for the=20
special character of a man, and their specific combination determines=20
the extent to which an individual can achieve an inner equilibrium=20
and can contribute to the well-being of society. It is quite possible=20
that the relative strength of these two drives is, in the main, fixed=20
by inheritance. But the personality that finally emerges is largely=20
formed by the environment in which a man happens to find himself=20
during his development, by the structure of the society in which he=20
grows up, by the tradition of that society, and by its appraisal of=20
particular types of behavior. The abstract concept "society" means to=20
the individual human being the sum total of his direct and indirect=20
relations to his contemporaries and to all the people of earlier=20
generations. The individual is able to think, feel, strive, and work=20
by himself; but he depends so much upon society=97in his physical,=20
intellectual, and emotional existence=97that it is impossible to think=20
of him, or to understand him, outside the framework of society. It=20
is "society" which provides man with food, clothing, a home, the=20
tools of work, language, the forms of thought, and most of the=20
content of thought; his life is made possible through the labor and=20
the accomplishments of the many millions past and present who are all=20
hidden behind the small word "society."=20

It is evident, therefore, that the dependence of the individual upon=20
society is a fact of nature which cannot be abolished=97just as in the=20
case of ants and bees. However, while the whole life process of ants=20
and bees is fixed down to the smallest detail by rigid, hereditary=20
instincts, the social pattern and interrelationships of human beings=20
are very variable and susceptible to change. Memory, the capacity to=20
make new combinations, the gift of oral communication have made=20
possible developments among human being which are not dictated by=20
biological necessities. Such developments manifest themselves in=20
traditions, institutions, and organizations; in literature; in=20
scientific and engineering accomplishments; in works of art. This=20
explains how it happens that, in a certain sense, man can influence=20
his life through his own conduct, and that in this process conscious=20
thinking and wanting can play a part.

Man acquires at birth, through heredity, a biological constitution=20
which we must consider fixed and unalterable, including the natural=20
urges which are characteristic of the human species. In addition,=20
during his lifetime, he acquires a cultural constitution which he=20
adopts from society through communication and through many other=20
types of influences. It is this cultural constitution which, with the=20
passage of time, is subject to change and which determines to a very=20
large extent the relationship between the individual and society.=20
Modern anthropology has taught us, through comparative investigation=20
of so-called primitive cultures, that the social behavior of human=20
beings may differ greatly, depending upon prevailing cultural=20
patterns and the types of organization which predominate in society.=20
It is on this that those who are striving to improve the lot of man=20
may ground their hopes: human beings are not condemned, because of=20
their biological constitution, to annihilate each other or to be at=20
the mercy of a cruel, self-inflicted fate.

If we ask ourselves how the structure of society and the cultural=20
attitude of man should be changed in order to make human life as=20
satisfying as possible, we should constantly be conscious of the fact=20
that there are certain conditions which we are unable to modify. As=20
mentioned before, the biological nature of man is, for all practical=20
purposes, not subject to change. Furthermore, technological and=20
demographic developments of the last few centuries have created=20
conditions which are here to stay. In relatively densely settled=20
populations with the goods which are indispensable to their continued=20
existence, an extreme division of labor and a highly-centralized=20
productive apparatus are absolutely necessary. The time=97which,=20
looking back, seems so idyllic=97is gone forever when individuals or=20
relatively small groups could be completely self-sufficient. It is=20
only a slight exaggeration to say that mankind constitutes even now a=20
planetary community of production and consumption.=20

I have now reached the point where I may indicate briefly what to me=20
constitutes the essence of the crisis of our time. It concerns the=20
relationship of the individual to society. The individual has become=20
more conscious than ever of his dependence upon society. But he does=20
not experience this dependence as a positive asset, as an organic=20
tie, as a protective force, but rather as a threat to his natural=20
rights, or even to his economic existence. Moreover, his position in=20
society is such that the egotistical drives of his make-up are=20
constantly being accentuated, while his social drives, which are by=20
nature weaker, progressively deteriorate. All human beings, whatever=20
their position in society, are suffering from this process of=20
deterioration. Unknowingly prisoners of their own egotism, they feel=20
insecure, lonely, and deprived of the naive, simple, and=20
unsophisticated enjoyment of life. Man can find meaning in life,=20
short and perilous as it is, only through devoting himself to=20
society.=20
The economic anarchy of capitalist society as it exists today is, in=20
my opinion, the real source of the evil. We see before us a huge=20
community of producers the members of which are unceasingly striving=20
to deprive each other of the fruits of their collective labor=97not by=20
force, but on the whole in faithful compliance with legally=20
established rules. In this respect, it is important to realize that=20
the means of production=97that is to say, the entire productive=20
capacity that is needed for producing consumer goods as well as=20
additional capital goods=97may legally be, and for the most part are,=20
the private property of individuals.

For the sake of simplicity, in the discussion that follows I shall=20
call "workers" all those who do not share in the ownership of the=20
means of production=97although this does not quite correspond to the=20
customary use of the term. The owner of the means of production is in=20
a position to purchase the labor power of the worker. By using the=20
means of production, the worker produces new goods which become the=20
property of the capitalist. The essential point about this process is=20
the relation between what the worker produces and what he is paid,=20
both measured in terms of real value. Insofar as the labor contract=20
is "free," what the worker receives is determined not by the real=20
value of the goods he produces, but by his minimum needs and by the=20
capitalists' requirements for labor power in relation to the number=20
of workers competing for jobs. It is important to understand that=20
even in theory the payment of the worker is not determined by the=20
value of his product.

Private capital tends to become concentrated in few hands, partly=20
because of competition among the capitalists, and partly because=20
technological development and the increasing division of labor=20
encourage the formation of larger units of production at the expense=20
of smaller ones. The result of these developments is an oligarchy of=20
private capital the enormous power of which cannot be effectively=20
checked even by a democratically organized political society. This is=20
true since the members of legislative bodies are selected by=20
political parties, largely financed or otherwise influenced by=20
private capitalists who, for all practical purposes, separate the=20
electorate from the legislature. The consequence is that the=20
representatives of the people do not in fact sufficiently protect the=20
interests of the underprivileged sections of the population.=20
Moreover, under existing conditions, private capitalists inevitably=20
control, directly or indirectly, the main sources of information=20
(press, radio, education). It is thus extremely difficult, and indeed=20
in most cases quite impossible, for the individual citizen to come to=20
objective conclusions and to make intelligent use of his political=20
rights.=20

The situation prevailing in an economy based on the private ownership=20
of capital is thus characterized by two main principles: first, means=20
of production (capital) are privately owned and the owners dispose of=20
them as they see fit; second, the labor contract is free. Of course,=20
there is no such thing as a pure capitalist society in this sense. In=20
particular, it should be noted that the workers, through long and=20
bitter political struggles, have succeeded in securing a somewhat=20
improved form of the "free labor contract" for certain categories of=20
workers. But taken as a whole, the present day economy does not=20
differ much from "pure" capitalism.

Production is carried on for profit, not for use. There is no=20
provision that all those able and willing to work will always be in a=20
position to find employment; an "army of unemployed" almost always=20
exists. The worker is constantly in fear of losing his job. Since=20
unemployed and poorly paid workers do not provide a profitable=20
market, the production of consumers' goods is restricted, and great=20
hardship is the consequence. Technological progress frequently=20
results in more unemployment rather than in an easing of the burden=20
of work for all. The profit motive, in conjunction with competition=20
among capitalists, is responsible for an instability in the=20
accumulation and utilization of capital which leads to increasingly=20
severe depressions. Unlimited competition leads to a huge waste of=20
labor, and to that crippling of the social consciousness of=20
individuals which I mentioned before.=20
This crippling of individuals I consider the worst evil of=20
capitalism. Our whole educational system suffers from this evil. An=20
exaggerated competitive attitude is inculcated into the student, who=20
is trained to worship acquisitive success as a preparation for his=20
future career.=20

I am convinced there is only one way to eliminate these grave evils,=20
namely through the establishment of a socialist economy, accompanied=20
by an educational system which would be oriented toward social goals.=20
In such an economy, the means of production are owned by society=20
itself and are utilized in a planned fashion. A planned economy,=20
which adjusts production to the needs of the community, would=20
distribute the work to be done among all those able to work and would=20
guarantee a livelihood to every man, woman, and child. The education=20
of the individual, in addition to promoting his own innate abilities,=20
would attempt to develop in him a sense of responsibility for his=20
fellow men in place of the glorification of power and success in our=20
present society.

Nevertheless, it is necessary to remember that a planned economy is=20
not yet socialism. A planned economy as such may be accompanied by=20
the complete enslavement of the individual. The achievement of=20
socialism requires the solution of some extremely difficult socio-
political problems: how is it possible, in view of the far-reaching=20
centralization of political and economic power, to prevent=20
bureaucracy from becoming all-powerful and overweening? How can the=20
rights of the individual be protected and therewith a democratic=20
counterweight to the power of bureaucracy be assured?

Clarity about the aims and problems of socialism is of greatest=20
significance in our age of transition. Since, under present=20
circumstances, free and unhindered discussion of these problems has=20
come under a powerful taboo, I consider the foundation of this=20
magazine to be an important public service.


=20




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