BMCR 2009.03.39, Olivier Hekster, Rome and Its Empire, AD 193-284

Olivier Hekster, Rome and Its Empire, AD 193-284. Debates and Documents
in Ancient History.  Edinburgh:  Edinburgh University Press, 2008.  Pp.
xix, 183.  ISBN 9780748623044.  $40.00 (pb).

Reviewed by Andrew G. Scott, Hendrix College ([email protected])
Word count:  1743 words
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Hekster's book provides an introduction to the period AD 193-284,
commonly known as one of crisis and instability.  The volume is part of
the Debates and Documents in Ancient History series, the goal of which
is to present current evaluations of relevant issues combined with
texts in translation; it is intended for "students, teachers and all
those interested in the history of the Roman empire" (vii).  The book
is brief (86 pages of analysis, plus another 65 of primary texts in
translation) and advanced readers would benefit more from Potter's
recent offering.[[1]]  In this volume Hekster takes on the difficult
task of looking at a complicated period of Roman history in isolation
and in a brief compass and is ultimately successful in providing an
adequate and thorough introduction to the major issues of the "short"
third century.

The volume is divided into two parts: "Debates," which contains an
introduction, five chapters, and a conclusion, and "Documents," which
includes select primary sources in translation.

The introduction, "History and Narrative," stresses the general
instability of the third century, the main theme of the work, and it
presents as topics for subsequent chapters the attempts and failures to
establish dynasties, aggression from Germanic tribes and the Sassanids,
plague, and economic insecurity.  The introduction also discusses the
primary sources for the period in question.

The first chapter, "A Capital and its Provinces," is divided into
sections that analyze the situation at Rome and in the provinces.  In
the first section, Hekster suggests that, whereas Rome had previously
been stable (with the exception of the civil wars of 68-69), the year
193 ushered in a long period of volatility.  To emphasize the
instability at Rome, three hypothetical lives are presented: one man
living from 150-200, the second from 200-250, and the third from
250-300.  According to this analysis, which seems a bit too broad to be
effective, matters got progressively worse as time went on.  Turning to
the provinces, Hekster cites brigandage, soldiers making demands on the
local population, and fighting on the frontiers as major problems.  The
effect of these problems on the provinces is difficult to assess, and
regions are not treated individually (most likely due to lack of
space).  The chapter concludes with a discussion of the fragmentation
of the empire (e.g. Palmyra) and the decentralization of Rome
(primarily a product of constant campaigning by the emperor).

Chapter 2 addresses the issues of "Economy, Armies, and
Administration," and a brief introduction presents the agricultural and
financial problems of the period, as evidenced by the decline in
inscriptions, building dedications, and shipwrecks; the drop in
precious metal content in coins; the disappearance of banks in the
West; and indications of economic instability in Egypt.  Given the
scope of the book, none of these issues can be discussed in detail, and
for full comprehension several (if not all) require a broader timeline
than can be given.  Additionally, the third century saw many problems
with the military, which centered on its large pay increases and
extension of privileges under the Severans.  Large payouts to foreign
enemies contributed to the deteriorating financial situation of the
empire and perhaps affected the soldiers, who were unhappy with their
pay losing value through coin debasement.  Hekster stresses the
importance of a "military man" as leader of the empire in the third
century, a point that is further made in chapter 4.  The final section
in this chapter addresses "Consequences of change."  With the increased
demands to be on campaign, the emperor formed greater connections with
military men both for his imperial staff and in local communities, at
the expense of the senators.

Chapter 3 examines "Law and Citizenship," with a focus on the rise of
jurists during the Severan period and the purpose and consequences of
the Constitutio Antoniniana.  The analysis here becomes more focused as
the work moves to a more specific issue.  The rise of jurists was a
result of the large number of legal appeals and the need for someone to
deal with them in a systematic manner (thus making it normal to have a
jurist serve as one of the two praetorian prefects).  Another reason
for the pronounced position of jurists in this period may have been
Severus' interest in law, which had a subsequent effect on the system
of patronage.  This discussion of jurists leads to the Constitutio
Antoniniana, and the different sides of a long and complex scholarly
debate are presented clearly.  While Hekster first follows Dio's
assertion that increased tax revenue was the main purpose for the
extension of Roman citizenship, he finds this explanation insufficient,
and instead suggests that the periphery of the empire had become too
difficult to ignore.  Appeasement of the gods, the enhancement of Roman
identity, and the creation of political advantages for Caracalla were
also possible reasons for the Constitutio.  Consequences of the measure
include many people taking the name Aurelius, in recognition that
Caracalla had bestowed this new privilege on them; Roman practice being
adopted; Roman law extending its reach; and there perhaps being a
greater centralization of the religion of the empire around the figure
of the emperor.  Hekster, however, is quick to point out that local
identity rarely disappeared and local law and custom often supplemented
official Roman statute.

Chapter 4, "Development and Perception of Emperorship," argues that
because there were so many emperors, who often ruled very briefly, from
193-284, it became difficult for the emperor to present himself as the
center of society.  This point is complicated by the fact that making
the emperor the focal point was instrumental in keeping the empire
together.  The third century also witnessed an emphasis on becoming
emperor through the military, though the real change was the inability
of most emperors to form a dynasty.  Military virtues were expressed in
the imperial coinage and imagery from the same period, and the
discussion of the self-presentation of the emperor leads to an analysis
of his reception in the empire.  The third century saw an emperor who
had to be available to his subjects and who therefore spent less time
at Rome.  Cities still acclaimed the emperor, but had to be careful not
to do so too quickly for fear of supporting an emperor who would be
quickly overthrown by a foe, potentially plunging the city into
disgrace.  Cities' lasting desire to be named neokoros shows that they
were still paying attention to the emperor.  The final portion of this
chapter addresses worship of the emperor.  Asserting the divine aspects
of being emperor remained one way for emperors to exert control, but
this was complicated in the third century by the fact that emperors no
longer received their own state temples; and, by the time of Maximinus,
Herodian suggests that divi had lost status.

The main focus of Chapter 5 is the persecution of Christians, with a
final brief section discussing the continuity of religion during the
period.  Martyrdom developed in the third century, as persecutions
became organized and Christianity became a problem for Rome, since it
forbade sacrifice to the gods.  Hekster goes on to assess the measures
taken by Decius and Valerian.  The final section addresses "Continuity
and Change in third-century religion"; it notes the rapid expansion of
Christianity in the third century, along with the rise of Manichaeism
and oriental cults.  Finally, Hekster recognizes the continuity of
traditional worship, as stressed by documents such as the Feriale
Duranum.

The Conclusion has two sections.  "Fragmentation and unification from
193 to 284" observes that never before were there so many emperors and
usurpers in so little time, and never before had portions of the empire
seceded.  Religious fragmentation occurred, and outsiders gained
prominence.  On the other hand, unification can be seen in the fact
that the emperor became more important, the sense of Romanness
increased, Roman law became universal, and possibly the first steps
toward a unified Roman religion were taken.  The second section asks,
"A third century crisis?"  Here Hekster reviews modern scholarship and
points out that while the third century used to be seen as a time of
crisis, it is now more commonly viewed as a period of change and
transformation.  Some areas saw very little change, the dominant
troubles had their origin in earlier ages, and Romanness did not die
out in the third century, but survived well into the fourth.

Part II ("Documents") contains sources in translation (literary,
epigraphic, papyrological), as well as images of coins, statues, and
relief sculptures.  This section shows how varied the sources for this
period are and provides a good overview for the student.  Readers
should be advised that not all sources are included and that
conflicting accounts of the same issues are seldom incorporated.  Some
areas could be improved here.  References in Part I read, e.g. "II 16
13.7844," without a page number, and it can often be cumbersome to
locate the primary source.  Literary sources are often excerpted, but
it is not clear when the translator is omitting large portions of the
text.  Inscriptions and coins do not always have a reference to where
they can be found outside of this volume.  Finally, the translator does
not indicate the original language of the text.  Despite these
shortcomings, this final section is useful in that it pulls together,
in translation, a wide variety of primary sources, and it should prove
valuable for students and instructors.

The volume concludes with sections on "Further Reading" (very helpful
in letting readers know what primary texts have not been included in
Part II and in recommending modern scholarship), "Essay Questions"
(helpful to student and instructor alike), and "Internet Resources."

Despite being forced to treat very large topics within this brief
period of time, Hekster provides a fine overview of the problems and
issues of the third century.  The chronological segmentation of the
Roman empire, however, raises several questions, the most obvious of
which is why the years AD 193-284 should be considered a unit at all,
and Hekster expresses discomfort with this division (e.g. "nor should
any period really be looked at in isolation," p. 86).  Numerous issues
and problems of the third century had precedents in previous periods,
and it is rightly pointed out that the great amount of continuity
within the period of the Roman empire extended across several
centuries.  In all, however, this book, with its presentation of
current views on important issues, selection of primary texts, and
extensive citation of up-to-date scholarship, provides a good
introduction to the third century.

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Notes:


1.   Potter, D.S. The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180-395.  Routledge 2004.