BMCR 2009.07.10: Bobou on Kousser, Hellenistic and Roman Ideal Sculpture: The Allure of the Classical

Rachel Meredith Kousser, Hellenistic and Roman Ideal Sculpture: The
Allure of the Classical.  Cambridge/New York:  Cambridge University
Press, 2008.  Pp. xv, 208.  ISBN 9780521877824.  $85.00.

Reviewed by Olympia Bobou, Brasenose College, Oxford
([email protected] / [email protected])
Word count:  2223 words
-------------------------------
To read a print-formatted version of this review, see
http://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2009/2009-07-10.html
To comment on this review, see
http://www.bmcreview.org/2009/07/20090710.html
-------------------------------

Preview (http://books.google.com/books?id=Mea2-zywyYAC)

[Table of contents is listed at the end of the review.]

Hellenistic and Roman Ideal Sculpture: The Allure of the Classical by
Rachel Kousser is a short monograph tackling a phenomenon spanning
several centuries: the emergence of classicizing statuary in the fourth
century BCE and its uses and transformations in the changing and
complex world of the Hellenistic and Roman Imperial periods.

Kousser's methodological weapon of choice in examining and assessing
the ways a particular image was used, transmitted, and transformed from
period to period and according to each context in which it was set up,
is the theory of reception. Even though she acknowledges the
contribution of recent studies on Roman statuary, and most notably of
those scholars propagating the importance of emulation in Roman
artistic circles, and those emphasising the originality of Roman
statuary, she identifies two significant problems with modern
approaches. First of all, statues are studied outside their specific
historical context and, secondly, without any concern as to the
particular needs and beliefs of local populations in the areas where
the statues were placed. By focusing on the statue of the Aphrodite of
Capua type and analysing its differing uses according to location and
patron requirements, Kousser hopes to address these problems.

In the first chapter, Kousser looks at the information regarding the
original statue of the Aphrodite of Capua, and its Hellenistic copies
and variations. She incorporates the statue in a series of partially
clothed Aphrodite images produced from the late fifth century BCE
onwards, and acknowledges the spirit of emulation that governed the
creation of the type. The original of the Aphrodite of Capua is
accepted to have been that of the Armed Aphrodite (Aphrodite
Hoplismene), a cult statue of the goddess placed in her sanctuary at
Acrocorinth. Kousser examines the evidence for the existence of the
statue in Corinth in the Hellenistic and Roman period, and then
proceeds into a detailed discussion of the different meanings that
variations of the type might have had. For that reason, she focuses on
the 'Venus de Milo', found in the gymnasium of Melos, small-scale
statuettes from houses, and terracotta figurines from tombs.

In the second chapter, Kousser examines the uses and functions of
classical images in  early imperial Roman art, by focusing on specific
examples in large and small scale. These highlight the changes
occurring in the visual language of the period, and the tensions
between programmatic, classicizing images, and the meaning imbued in
them. The Aphrodite of Capua type proves a flexible vehicle for images
denoting both sensuality and valour, as can be shown by the use of the
type for both Venus and Victoria statues. At the same time, the
placement of different variations (in diverse public spaces such as the
Forum Romanum, or that of Brescia, or the tomb of Zoilos in
Aphrodisias, but also sword scabbards from Germany, as well as
coinage), demonstrates the fluidity of meaning that the image has in
the period under discussion, and the way that different signifiers
still battle for supremacy over a single sign.

In the third chapter, Kousser discusses the role of classicizing
sculpture as a tool used for the consolidation of the Roman Empire, and
as means of mediation between elite classes and state. The images
derivative of the Aphrodite of Capua type are shown to be used in
imperial state art, especially in arches and coinage, in order to
allude to imperial power, virtue and culture. The desirability of
victory and power, which was part of the type's intrinsic meaning since
the creation of the Aphrodite Hoplismene, is accentuated through the
progressive, even aggressive, exposure of the goddess's flesh and
becomes associated with the desirability of Roman rule and government,
especially when it is used outside the capital. But, whereas Victory
images still refer to victory, images of Aphrodite, especially in Asia
Minor, allude to culture, erudition and Greek tradition.

The fourth chapter is dedicated to the use of these idealistic and
retrospective images in the shifting world of late antiquity, a world
moving from paganism to Christianity. She examines them in 'three major
contexts:... imperial triumphal monuments, houses and villa de/cor, and
tombs' (112). Kousser argues that they are used selectively, and that
their significance lies in disguising the sense of discord and change
of  period.

In the conclusions, Kousser first reiterates the basic principles of
her approach, and how, instead of focusing either on the uniformity or
the originality of Roman idealistic art, it shows classicizing art as a
refined body of works whose significance and appreciation was dependent
on the nuanced elaboration of well-known originals. She then proceeds
to a review of the recent scholarship on Roman classicism that
highlights the great number and variety of idealistic statues, and
their equally varied placement and geographic distribution. Finally,
she looks briefly at three statues (known from copies and originals)
and examines them through the lens of her approach, in order to show
how even seemingly unproblematic statues such as the Athena Parthenos
or the so-called Herculaneum Women, could be ascribed a different
meaning and importance depending on the period in which the copy was
made, and the place where it was set up.

On the whole, the identification of the meaning of idealizing statuary
in both the Hellenistic and Roman period is an ambitious project, even
when attempted through the examination of a single statuary type. As a
result, the chapters are unequal in length, and depth. Even though the
difference in length can be explained by the relative abundance or lack
of material evidence, the discrepancy in the treatment of the different
copies is problematic. The discussions concerning Aphrodite statuettes,
classicizing art in private contexts of the Early empire, sarcophagi
and the entire fourth chapter offer tantalizing glimpses into the uses
of idealistic art in general, and not just sculpture, and it would have
been desirable to see more on these topics.

>From a methodological point of view, there is one main problem. In
several cases, the argumentation is based on hypotheses or personal
interpretations, that take into account much later statuary and
literary accounts. This is a traditional approach that continues the
controversial argumentation that has existed concerning ideal statuary
since the 19th century. One example of that can be seen in her analysis
of the statue of Aphrodite Hoplismene .

The best evidence for the existence of the statue of the armed
Aphrodite date from the Roman period. Kousser starts with previously
studied Severan coins depicting the statue, and then proceeds to
Antonine frescos, late antique statues and back to second century lamps
(20-23, figs 8-11). The logic of the presentation is difficult to
follow. Moreover, lamps and statuettes with such images of Aphrodite
were not confined to Corinth, and testify rather to the popularity of
the Aphrodite image than to the specificity of the meaning of the type
in Corinth.

The evidence for the presence of a statue of the goddess in Acrocorinth
is scant, and there are no Late Classical or Hellenistic literary
sources to help us recognize or reconstruct the statue. For that
reason, Kousser cites two terracotta statuettes from the Tile Works at
Corinth (figs 12-13) that are identified as 'evidence ...for the early
use of the ... type' (24). Yet, neither of the two figurines bears a
close enough resemblance to be positively identified as a copy or even
a variation of the Aphrodite of Capua type.[[1]]

Based on this evidence, Kousser proceeds to reconstruct a lost original
that is identical to the one depicted in coins and frescos of the Roman
period, and treat that hypothetical original, as the original of the
type throughout her discussion of the variations and copies of the
statue of the Aphrodite of Capua type.

Moreover, the argument is weakened further by incorrect citations of
ancient Greek.  The word used for shield is hoplon, not hoplos (23),
and hoplismene is the past participle of the verb hoplizo, which means
to make/be ready, or be armed. Therefore, the word itself does not
'[draw] attention to the shield (the hoplos') held by the goddess'
(23), but rather points out that the goddess is armed.

This kind of circular argumentation can be found in other instances in
the book, and one must be especially attentive while reading, because a
hypothesis, no matter how likely or plausible, is still a hypothesis
and should be treated as such. This is especially important since,
because of the title and subject matter, the book will be read by
undergraduates.

Another problem when trying to understand the use of images based on
the Aphrodite of Capua type, is that once the subject matter of an
image changes, then so does its meaning. It is to be expected that an
image of Aphrodite will have different connotations, functions and
allusions than an image of Victory.

Finally, the aim of the book according to Kousser is to study 'the
historical evolution of a major sculptural type ... [and to use] this
as a case study through which to analyze a series of broader artistic
receptions/transformations' (4).  Furthermore, in the introduction
Kousser insists on her use of reception theory as a methodological
tool. For this reason, one is led to expect the history of the type's
reception, rather than the history of the type. However, this is almost
always the weakest aspect of each chapter.

In the first chapter, the emphasis is on the typology and the
iconography of the Aphrodite of the Capua type. The use and reception
of the image of the goddess takes a secondary place (seven pages out of
eighteen in the discussion of Aphrodite Hoplismene and its variations),
while the reception and use of terracotta figurines especially is
summarily described as funerary.[[2]]

The situation is similar in the second chapter, with the focus again on
the shifting iconographies of the figures. The Zoilos monument in
Aphrodisias is well-published, and so could have been a good test case
for the reception of idealistic images in an Eastern provincial city
with ambitions of grandeur. The Victory of Brescia and the possible
reception of an idealistic sculpture in a newly created civilian colony
are similarly unexplored. Cameos and coins are discussed for their
typology only.

In the third chapter, when discussing the Victory from the column of
Trajan, Kousser focuses on the size and framing of the divine figures,
but does not indicate the actual height and placement of the panel with
the Victory, and how that would have impaired the highly nuanced view
that she suggests. Kousser turns away from discussions of style and
iconography when examining votive columns from Roman Germany, but
returns to them when analyzing statues of Aphrodite from bath
complexes.

In this respect, the fourth chapter offers the best examples on using
reception theory in order to understand idealistic, classicizing
images, such as figures of Victories in imperial monuments in Rome and
Constantinople. Unfortunately, due to the brevity of this chapter, her
analysis is neither detailed or in-depth.

Kousser also seems to be alternating between patrons and viewers when
discussing uses and meanings. The Aphrodite Hoplismene  is seen through
the eyes of the worshippers, but not the commissioners, a Mars-Venus
group found in the Forum Augusti is discussed in relation to its
viewers, the Tomb of Zoilos is studied in connection to Zoilos, the
Victory of Brescia is also seen through the eyes of the commissioners,
and so on. Of course, we do not always have information about both, but
either some consistency in her treatment or some acknowledgment of the
possible patrons and viewers would have been welcome.

This also opens the question: which viewers are we talking about?
Kousser only rarely makes some attempts to differentiate and identify
her viewers, and even then, they tend to belong to the upper classes
and be mostly male. To her credit, she is being cautious and most times
her potential viewers can also be identified with the patrons of the
works she discusses (as in the case of images on gems and swords).
Nevertheless, recognizing the multiplicity of viewers may be a
difficult task, but not an impossible one.[[3]]

But, Kousser's use of traditional approaches is masterful and proves to
be the great strength of the book. Instead of an old-fashioned, staid
methodology, Kousser demonstrates how careful iconographic analysis of
the material can be insightful and help us understand better the
importance of sculpture in specific contexts. Kousser's discussion of
Aphrodite of Melos offers glimpses of the possible meanings of
Aphrodite's attributes in an athletic-educational setting. Her analysis
of gems and glass pastes of Victoria Romana is solid, perceptive and
innovative in its conclusions. The same can be seen in her treatment of
Aphrodite figures from baths in Asia Minor.

On the whole, the book presents an exciting topic. If treated with
caution, it can offer valuable insight to the way idealistic sculpture
was used in specific contexts and specific periods. When we have
adequate information regarding the context and usage of particular
statues, Kousser's stated approach can be fruitful and enrich our
understanding of the past.

Contents

1. Creating the past: the origins of classicism in Hellenistic
sculpture
2. From Greece to Rome: retrospective sculpture in the early empire
3. From metropolis to empire: retrospective sculpture in the high
empire
4. From Roman to Christian: retrospection and transformation in late
antique art
------------------
Notes:


1.   Merker, in her publication of the statuette depicted on fig. 12,
identifies it as a 'woman or goddess, probably arranging her hair,' G.
S. Merker, The Greek Tile Works at Corinth: The Site and Finds (2006),
117, no. 252.

2.   An examination of the different finds and terracotta figurines
from tombs shows that the figure of Aphrodite could have had a
different meaning in the tomb of a young girl or a maiden from that of
a married woman. For some insights on the potential and diverse uses
(and users) of such statuettes, see D. Graepler, Tonfiguren im Grab:
Fundkontexte hellenistischer Terrakotten aus der Nekropole von Tarent
(1997), or U. Mrogenda, Die Terrakottafiguren von Myrina : eine
Untersuchung ihrer moeglichen Bedeutung und Funktion im
Grabzusammenhang (1996).

3.   Caroline Vout's Power and Eroticism in Imperial Rome  (2007),
offers a good example of how we can plausibly identify and discuss
different possible viewers, and shows one way of dealing with this
problem.