BMCR 2009.07.57: Ward on Fiema, Petra - The Mountain of Aaron. The Finnish Archaeological Project in Jordan. Volume I. The Church and the Chapel

Zbigniew T. Fiema, Jaakko Froese/n, Petra - The Mountain of Aaron. The
Finnish Archaeological Project in Jordan. Volume I. The Church and the
Chapel.  Helsinki:  Societas Scientiarum Fennica, 2008.  Pp. 447; 69
figs.  ISBN 9789516533646.  EUR 125.00.

Reviewed by Walter D. Ward, Georgia State University ([email protected])
Word count:  3072 words
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[Authors and titles are listed at the end of the review.]

The Mountain of Aaron is the first of three final publication reports
by the Finnish Jabal Harun Project (FJHP), which excavated an early
Christian church and monastic complex between 1997 and 2005 (an
additional season in 2007 is briefly mentioned in this volume and its
results will appear in future publications). This complex is located on
a plateau below the summit of Jabal Harun, a few kilometers from the
famous Nabataean city of Petra. Since the first century CE, Jabal Harun
has been identified as the location of the death of the Prophet Aaron.
This volume focuses on a church and chapel which were discovered at the
site, while future volumes will concentrate on a Nabataean cult
complex, the monastic/hostel structure, and the archaeological survey
of the region. The church and chapel were constructed sometime after
the mid-fifth century and remained inhabited until at least the ninth
or tenth century.

The excavations of the FJHP were inspired by the 1993 discovery of the
Petra Church and a cache of sixth century papyri found within the
church.[[1]] These discoveries overturned the then-current scholarly
consensus that Petra was largely destroyed by the 363 earthquake, which
shook the entire southern Levant, and then abandoned. One of the Petra
Papyri, still unpublished, mentions "the Sacred House of our Lord the
Saint High-Priest Aaron" <greek>a(/gios oi)=kos tou= despo/tou h(mw=n
tou= a(gi/ou a)rxiiere/ws *)aarw/n</greek>, and the FJHP set out to
determine if the Islamic shrine on Jabal Harun, by tradition dedicated
to Aaron, was the successor to an earlier Christian monastic community
(12, Petra papyrus inv. 6a.).

Since the publication of the Petra Church, archaeologists have turned
their attention to the later Roman/Byzantine remains of Petra and
southern Jordan.[[2]] Southern Jordan was administered as one part of
Palaestina Tertia, which also included the Sinai Peninsula and the
Negev in southern Israel. Scholars have long investigated the early
Christian remains in the Negev and the Sinai, but research on southern
Jordan in this period is just beginning. Although many projects have
been initiated in the past twenty years which have investigated
southern Jordan during late antiquity, only a few have reached final
publication status.[[3]] Many other projects are published only in
preliminary form.[[4]]

This volume is therefore a welcome addition to scholarship on the
southern Levant during late antiquity. It is geared towards
professional archaeologists and historians of the region, and provides
comparative material for the study of other sites, especially monastic
ones in the region, such as Saint Lot's tomb (Deir 'Ain 'Abata, see
note 4). Its most important contribution is the publication of an
extensive ceramic corpus, providing the largest ceramic catalog yet
published from the post-fourth century periods at Petra and southern
Jordan.[[5]]  For this reason alone, this work will be one of the most
commonly cited by archaeologists of the later-Roman, Byzantine, and
early Islamic occupation of southern Jordan.

The volume begins with a summary of the Aaron tradition in Jewish and
early Christian writers (5-25). It successfully argues that the region
around Petra was associated with the death and burial of Aaron by the
first century C.E. and makes a compelling case that the monastery and
early Christian chapel on the summit of Jabal Harun were connected with
Aaron. This chapter also surveys information relating to early
Christians in Petra, and covers the same ground as the first chapter of
the Petra Church publication. This information, however, is a useful
addition to this volume and serves as an introduction to the early
Christian presence in the region.[[6]]

Chapter 2 examines the accounts of early travelers and pilgrims to
Jabal Harun (27-49). Most importantly, these travelers have preserved
details about the now destroyed early Christian chapel which was
located underneath the Islamic shrine on the summit of Jabal Harun. The
summit is currently off-limits to exploration, making these early
accounts our only record of the ruins on the site.

In Chapter 3, Fiema describes the goals and methodology of the FJHP
(51-59). Specifically, the project sought to answer the following
questions: what was the pre-monastic occupation of the site (if any)
and the origins of the monastic community? Was this community
economically self-sustainable? How did the usage of the site and
material culture change during the period of occupation? Finally, when
was the site abandoned, and does the archaeological evidence for
abandonment contrast with the Crusader-period literary sources?

Chapter 4 describes the documentation of the site through
photogrammetry, which worked towards two goals: to create a 3D model of
the site and to develop techniques for using photogrammetry in
archaeological projects (61-85). This chapter will be most informative
for those interested in the technical aspects of and obstacles to the
use of state-of-the-art techniques for the visual documentation of
archaeological sites. It is possible to see videos derived from the 3D
models developed by the project at
http://www.fjhp.info/Pages/fields/3D-models.html
(http://www.fjhp.info/Pages/fields/3D-models.html) .  The models
themselves suggest the possible utility of this technology; the terrain
video demonstrates the substantial climb necessary to reach the
monastery and shrine.[[7]]

In Chapter 5, Fiema provides a description of the FJHP site and
associated structures, which he notes will "be superseded by the
information contained in the second volume" of the final report which
will include the final publication of the archaeological survey data
(87-97). The chapter is useful in this volume because it helps to place
the church in its local and regional context. The chapter closes with a
description of the human and non-human activities (such as earthquakes)
which led to the formation of the site.

Chapter 6 begins the reporting of archaeological data by discussing the
stratigraphic information relating to the architectural features of the
church. The excavators divided the church and chapel into 14 distinct
phases (99-185). Phase 1 is the pre-monastic occupation of the site,
Phases 2-8 were occupational phases of clearly ecclesiastical use, and
Phases 9-14 were probably related to post-monastic occupation. Phases
3, 6, 8, 10, and 12 were phases of destruction, most likely from
earthquakes. An appendix  discusses a unique find at the site which has
few parallels from other sites-- a stone "box" with a depression and
lid -- which has been interpreted as an installation for a relic
(177-180).

Phase 2 represented the first construction of the church and connected
chapel. Since both structures shared a common wall through which the
chapel was accessed, they were probably constructed at the same time.
The church in this phase possessed a tripartite nave with a single apse
flanked by two pastophoria. The side chapel also contained a single
apse, was flanked on both sides by cupboards, and possessed a
baptistery cut into the bedrock on the western end. The excavators
dated this phase to the mid-to-later fifth century, although most of
the ceramic material and a glass lamp could be dated to the early sixth
century. Two coins were dated to ca. 402 and 457, the latter providing
a terminus post quem (116). The structure was seemingly destroyed by an
earthquake (Phase 3) which was dated by glass finds to the mid to later
sixth century; however, a radiocarbon date from inside a lamp from
Phase 3 indicated a date between ca. 594-650 (118). This may indicate
that the destruction occurred later than the date suggested by the
material remains from Phase 2, such as the ceramic evidence and glass
lamp mentioned earlier. The authors note that this data is
contradictory, but prefer to date Phase 2 and 3 based on the material
remains rather than the radiocarbon evidence.

Following the destruction in Phase 3, the basilica was remodeled. In
Phase 4, the nave's length was cut in half, with the western half
converted into an open air atrium with a porch, which probably served
as a narthex. Soon afterwards (Phase 5), a drainage system was added to
the atrium and a mosaic floor was placed in the porch. After another
destruction (Phase 6), dated to the mid-seventh century, the church was
further remodeled, with a completely new roof and roof support system
constructed which necessitated the addition of four new pillars in the
basilica (Phase 7). In this phase, masonry, covered with a fine
plaster, almost completely replaced marble throughout the church. Even
more dramatic changes occurred in the chapel, where the original
baptistery was covered and a new baptistery was constructed near the
bema. Finally, an altar with an interior compartment was erected in the
apse of the chapel which may have held relics attributed to Saint
Aaron. No relics were discovered, but a marble fragment with the word
<greek>arwn</greek> was found next to the altar from this phase (145,
273). The ecclesiastical function of the structure ended as a result of
Phase 8, another destruction layer, dated to the eighth century,
possibly connected to the earthquake which occurred in 749 and damaged
many sites throughout the Near East.

Chapter 7 begins the analysis of the material remains with a discussion
of the marble furnishings and decorations of the church (187-233).
Several hundred fragments were discovered, including pieces of chancel
posts and screens, altar tables, and supports. The finds are well
documented, with descriptions and photographs.

Chapter 8 discusses the two baptismal fonts discovered in the chapel
(235-245). It begins by discussing the role of baptism in early
Christian practice, and the excavators postulate that these fonts
served pilgrims who would have waited to be baptized until undergoing
pilgrimage, which was common up to the sixth century.

Next, Chapter 9 describes the mosaic laid out in Phase 5 in the narthex
of the church (246-262). The original mosaic depicted a hunting scene
with numerous animals, a geometric pattern flanked by birds, and a
geometric  emblema  located in the center of the narthex. The artistic
style of the mosaic is completely in line with the late antique Near
East, but the use of figures in a narthex is rare. No dedicatory
inscription was discovered. The mosaic was repaired many times,
probably a result of earthquake damage, but there is also extensive
iconoclastic damage to all of the figures. This parallels the
purposeful elimination of animal and human figures which is a feature
of the middle eighth century in the Near East. An appendix includes a
commentary on the animals depicted in the narthex mosaic (263-271).

Chapter 10 and an appendix describe the meager epigraphic material
discovered during the excavations, both in Greek and, in the case of
two later graffiti, in Arabic (272-285). In addition to the inscription
mentioned above referring to Aaron, there is an inscription probably
referring to Saint George, a relatively common saint in the southern
Levant; a quotation of Psalm 29:3; a quotation from Psalm 91; and a
painted plaster fragment referring to John the Baptist, which reads
<greek>prodomo</greek> "forerunner."[[8]]

For archaeologists working in the region, Chapter 11 and its associated
catalog may prove to be the most important, for it presents the most
extensive published corpus of well-stratified Byzantine and early
Islamic material from southern Jordan (286-329). This report
illuminates material associated with the dating of the church and
chapel; the final report on the pottery with a chronological typology
sequence will appear in a later volume. As Gerber notes, the absolute
dating of these ceramics is not secure and will need to be tested by
the pottery from the rest of the site as well as other sites in
southern Jordan; nevertheless, the quick publication of these ceramics
will be extremely helpful for archaeologists working in the region
because of the lack of published, comparable material.

Based on the fabric, G. concludes that the pottery was produced locally
in the Petra region throughout the occupation of the site, despite the
lack of known kilns operating in the Petra/Wadi Musa area in this
period. G. also argues that Jabal Harun's later ceramic corpus is
composed of finer wares and forms; this is contrary to evidence from
other sites in the Petra area, which show a slow degradation of quality
over time. The reasons for this observation, if confirmed, are
currently unknown.

In Chapter 12, Keller and Lindblom analyze the glass finds from the
church and the chapel (330-375). The discussion begins with a brief
description of the use of glass in Byzantine churches and their use in
the liturgy. Then they present the finds: goblets, cups, lamps,
windowpanes, and glass tesserae. Three appendices list the glass finds,
windowpane fragments, and metal objects associated with the lamps.

Chapter 13 describes the tiles and bricks from the church and chapel
(376-391). The tiles included pan-tiles (tegulae) and cover tiles
(imbreces). They are generally impossible to date accurately, and their
provenance is also unknown, both because there is very little
comparative evidence that has been published. It seems likely that the
roof in the Phase 2, 4, and 5 structures was pitched.

Chapter 14 is a catalog of the metal objects found, mostly nails for
the roof and nails which attached plaster to the walls, as well as
fittings for the marble decorations (392-403). An appendix describes a
sword guard which is of an unknown date.

Chapter 15 analyzes the plaster discovered at the site (404-423). The
chapter begins by discussing the Neolithic, Greek, Roman, and Byzantine
use and creation of plaster, then zeroes in on the use of plaster in
the Transjordan. In-situ plastering at the site was exposed by the
elements after the destruction of the structure, meaning that only
plaster discovered within excavation loci still contained paint. The
painted fragments were found in the highest concentration in the chapel
and many of the fragments contained Greek letters (such as the
"forerunner" inscription mentioned above). The plaster in the initial
phases was of high quality, and the construction of new plaster in
later phases was inferior to this early material.

The final chapter places the church and chapel into its regional
context (424-441). Fiema reasonably focuses on the churches of southern
Jordan and the Negev, locations which were located within the province
of Palaestina Tertia. Fiema describes the comparative churches in a
concise and articulate fashion, but I felt that site plans (for at
least a few of the churches) would help to convey the apparent
similarities with the Jabal Harun church. Strangely, Fiema does not
include evidence from the Sinai, which, in addition to Saint
Catherine's, also contained a number of churches such as those at
Pharan and many monastic sites. Since all of these churches must have
ministered to pilgrims, they could provide additional comparative
material.[[9]] The Jabal Harun church retained its monoapsidal form,
deviating from most other churches in Palaestina Tertia which were
converted to triapsidal basilicas in the mid-sixth century. This
transformation is often connected with the increased prominence of
saints in the liturgy. Possibly, local tradition held sway at Jabal
Harun, or relics of Aaron were stored in the chapel, making a
conversion to a triapsidal form unnecessary. The chapter ends by trying
to determine what structure the Crusaders, who mentioned a monastic
settlement and a church, described, because the church itself had been
abandoned. Fiema concludes that the most likely solution is that some
rooms of the "western building," which were not covered in this volume,
were still occupied and could have housed a makeshift church for
visiting pilgrims.

The volume itself is handsomely presented, with high quality photos,
tables, and site drawings. I noticed few typographical errors (for
example, the Greek font on pg. 11 bleeds into the English text),
further attesting to editorial care. Each chapter's notes and
bibliography are printed immediately after the text, making the
checking of notes and citations very convenient. While this means that
some secondary literature is referenced multiple times throughout the
work, it is preferable to a unified bibliography.

In conclusion, this is an important volume on the early Christian
period of southern Jordan. Its large corpus of published ceramic
evidence will be especially valuable until the final report is
completed. This volume continues to help challenge the notion that
Petra was largely abandoned and unimportant after the 363 earthquake
and further demonstrates the long history of Christianity in southern
Jordan, even after the region fell under Muslimcontrol.

Contents:

Introduction by Jaakko Froese/n

Chapter 1: Aaron in Religious Literature, Myth and Legend by Froese/n
and Paeivi Miettunen

Chapter 2: Jabal Harun: History, Past Explorations, Monuments, and
Pilgrimages by Paeivi Miettunen

Chapter 3: The FJHP: Background, Goals and Methodology by Zbigniew
Fiema

Chapter 4: The Cartographic Documentation in the FJHP Excavations by
Hanne Junnilainen, Katri Koistinen, Jaakko Latikka, Henrik Haggre/n,
Anna Erving and Nina Heiska

Chapter 5: The FJHP Site by Zbigniew Fiema

Chapter 6: The Church and the Chapel: Data and Phasing by Erko Mikkola,
Antti Lahelma, Zbigniew Fiema, and Richard Holmgren

Appendix. The Object from Locus E1.09 by Zbigniew Fiema and
Marie-Christine Comte

Chapter 7: Marble Furnishing and Decoration by Anna Lehtinen

Appendix. The 2007 finds by Anna Lehtinen

Chapter 8: The Baptismal Fonts by Ann Rajala and Zbigniew Fiema

Chapter 9: The Mosaic by Basema Hamarneh and Karin Hinkkanen

Appendix, The Animals Depicted on the Jabal Harun Mosaic: Biogeography
and Archaeozoology by Jacqueline Studer

Chapter 10: Greek Inscriptions from the Church and the Chapel by Jaakko
Froese/n, Erkki Sironen and Zbigniew Fiema

Appendix. Two Arabic Inscriptions from Jabal Harun by Jaakko
Haemeen-Anttila and Kaj Oehrnberg

Chapter 11: The Byzantine and Early Islamic Pottery from Jabal Harun by
Yvonne Gerber

Appendix. The Catalog of Ceramics from the Selected Deposits associated
with the

Church and the Chapel by Yvonne Gerber and Virpi Holmquist

Chapter 12: Glass Finds from the Church and the Chapel by Daniel Keller
and Jeanette Lindblom

Appendix 1. Catalog of Glass Lamps and Vessels associated with the
Church and the Chapel by Jeanette Lindblom

Appendix 2. Table of Glass Windowpane Fragments from the Loci
associated with Phases 9 and 11 by Jeanetter Lindblom

Appendix 3. List of Metal Objects associated with Glass Lamps by Sari
Pouta

Chapter 13: Tiles and Bricks from the Jabal Harun Monastery by Pirjo
Hamari

Appendix. Catalog of Tile and Brick Material from Jabal Harun by Pirjo
Mamari

Chapter 14: The Metal Objects from Jabal Harun: A Descriptive Catalog
of Objects related to the Church and the Chapel by Sari Pouta and
Marlena Whiting

Appendix. Decorated Iron Sword Guard (reg. no. 245) by Jon Coulston

Chapter 15: The Analysis of Wall Plaster at Jabal Harun by Christina
Danielli

Appendix. Sample Analysis of Wall Plaster: PS 1 and PS 3

Chapter 16: The Concluding Remarks by Zbigniew Fiema

------------------
Notes:


1.   Fiema, Z. et al.  The Petra Church.  Amman, Jordan: ACOR, 2001;
Froese/n, J., Arava, A. and M. Lehtinen (eds.). The Petra Papyri I.
Amman: ACOR, 2002; Arjava, A., Matias B., and Gagos T.  The Petra
Papyri III.  Acor Publications 5. Amman: ACOR, 2007.

2.   The Swiss-Liechtenstein excavations of the ez-Zantur site, which
overlooks the major monuments along Petra's colonnaded street, began in
1988 before the discovery of the Petra Church. This team discovered a
mansion that was inhabited from the first century B.C.E. until the
fifth century C.E. This was the first excavation of a residential area
in Petra. Schmid, S.  Petra - Ez Zantur II: Teil 1: Die Feinkermaik Der
Nabataeer.  Typolodie, Chronologie Und Kulturhistorische Hintergruende.
Mainz: Verlag Phillip von Zabern, 2000; Kolb, B.  Petra - Ez Zantur
II: Teil 2: Die Spaetantiken Wohnbauten Von Ez Zantur in Petra Und Der
Wohnhausbau in Palaestina Vom 4.-6. Jh. N. Chr.  Mainz: Verlag Phillip
von Zabern, 2000. For a summary in English see: Kolb, B. "Petra - from
Tent to Mansion: Living on the Terraces of Ez-Zantur."  Petra
Rediscovered: Lost City of the Nabataeans.  Ed. G. Markoe. New York:
Harry Abrams, 2003. pp. 230-38.

3.   For example, the Petra Church (note 1) and the later Roman
domestic complex at Ez Zantur (note 2).

4.   For example, the excavations of Aila, Deir 'Ain 'Abata, Gharandal,
Humayma, the Petra Street Project, and Udhruh remain published in only
a preliminary fashion. For the latest publication of each of the
projects with references to earlier material, see Aila: Parker, S. T.
"The Roman 'Aqaba Project: The 2002 Campaign."  Annual of the
Department of Antiquities of Jordan  (ADAJ) 47 (2003): 321-33; Deir
'Ain 'Abata: Politis, K. " Excavations and Restorations at Deir 'Ain
'Abata 1995." ADAJ 41 (1997): 341-50. Gharandal: Walmsley, A. et al.
"Town and Village: Site Transformations in South Jordan (the Gharandal
Archaeological Project, Second Season Report)." ADAJ 43 (1999): 459-78.
Humayma: Oleson, J. et al. "Preliminary Report of Al-Humayma Excavation
Project 2000, 2002." ADAJ 47 (2003): 37-64; Petra Street Project:
Fiema, Z. "The Roman Street of the Petra Project, 1997: A Preliminary
Report." ADAJ 42 (1998): 395-424; Udhruh: Killick, A.C., ed.  Udhruh:
Caravan City and Desert Oasis.  Romsey, Hampshire: A.C. Killick, 1987.

5.   Not counting here the final publication of the Limes Arabicus
project which investigated el-Lejjun on the Kerak Plataeu just east of
the Dead Sea. This region of Jordan appears to have had a very
different ceramic tradition than southern Jordan (Parker, S. T., ed.
The Roman Frontier in Central Jordan: Final Report on the Limes
Arabicus Project, 1980-1989.  Washington: Dumbarton Oaks, 2006). For
references to the preliminary ceramic reports in southern Jordan, see
Gerber (in the reviewed volume, 288-289).

6.   I noticed one overstatement in this chapter when it is suggested
that Justinian did not show "any interest in Palaestina Tertia" (12).
This may have been true of the Jordanian side of Palaestina Tertia, but
clearly is not the case for the Negev and Sinai. Justinian is famously
known for ordering the construction of the monastery at Mount Sinai
which is now known as Saint Catherine's and may have erected a similar
structure at the nearby monastic community at Raithou. See Mayerson, P.
"Procopius or Eutychius on the Construction of the Monastery at Mount
Sinai: Which Is the More Reliable Source?"  Bulletin of the American
Schools of Oriental Research.  230 (1978): 33-38 and Dahari, U.
Monastic Settlements in South Sinai in the Byzantine Period: The
Archaeological Remains.  IAA Reports 9. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities
Authority, 2000, pgs. 138-146.

7.   I was unable to play these .avi files on a computer running
Windows Vista, but they worked just fine in Windows XP.

8.   There was a hostel/monastery dedicated to Saint George in the
Negev which can probably be identified with the ruins at Mizpe Shivta
(Figueras, P. "The Location of the Xenodochium Sancti Georgii in the
Light of Two Inscriptions in Mizpe Shivta."  ARAM   19 (2007): 509-26).

9.   On the church in Saint Catherine's see: Forsyth, G., and K.
Weitzmann.  The Monastery of Saint Catherine at Mount Sinai: The Church
and Fortress of Justinian.  Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press,
1973. For the monastic communities in the southern Sinai, see Dahari
2000 (note 6). For the churches at Pharan, see: Grossman, P.
"Excavations in Firan-Sinai (February 1998)."  Annales du Service des
Antiquite/s de L'E/gypte  76 (2001): 135-42 (with references to earlier
work).