BMCR 2009.02.18, Iris Tzachili, Aegean Metallurgy

Iris Tzachili (ed.), Aegean Metallurgy in the Bronze Age: Proceedings
of an International Symposium Held at the University of Crete,
Rethymnon, Greece, on November 19-21, 2004.  Athens:  Ta Pragmata
Publications, 2008.  Pp. 345.  ISBN 9789609826105.

Reviewed by Nicholas G. Blackwell, Bryn Mawr College
([email protected])
Word count:  3288 words
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[Authors and titles are listed at the end of the review.]

This monograph represents the publication of an international
conference held at the University of Crete, Rethymnon, Greece on
November 19-21, 2004. The well-illustrated volume is an important,
up-to-date contribution to the study of prehistoric metallurgy in the
Aegean and wider Mediterranean basin. The goal of the volume is to
consider recent discoveries and new approaches for the study of
metallurgy over the wide spatial and temporal areas of Aegean
prehistory. The articles publish new excavation data, discuss recent
analytical results, demonstrate the usefulness of quantitative
databases and apply new scientific approaches to the study of metals.
Although the volume is not a handbook and the quality of papers varies,
the publication is a valuable reference guide for specialists and
generalists alike. The most significant themes and revelations include:
the importance of arsenical copper in the FN-EBA or the "Age of
Arsenical Copper" according to Muhly (71),[[1]] evidence for 4th and
early 3rd millennium silver-working, a greater understanding of
smelting technology including the specialized nature of some smelting
sites, the importance of the Late Cypriot I metal industry in exporting
copper to Neopalatial Crete and the scientific methods available for
examining metallic compositions. The proceedings demonstrate the
shifting nature of metallurgical interests that now range from mining
and smelting to casting, hammering, repairing and recycling. The
monograph complements the recent publication of Metallurgy in the Early
Bronze Age Aegean, signifying the general trend towards an "archaeology
of metal production" and away from provenience studies.[[2]]

Tzachili (7-33) presents a helpful chronological and thematic
introduction while stressing that metallurgical development was
"non-linear and un-even, with many centres and a veritable mosaic of
techniques" (9). The rocky relationship between archaeologists and
archaeometallurgists over the last 50 years is highlighted and the
current phase is termed "the age of maturity, the age of constant
dialogue" (29). The necessity of collaboration for future advancements
in Aegean metallurgy is also stressed by Kakavogianni et al. (57).
Modern metallurgical studies shy away from typologies and focus on
analysis of elemental composition, ores, smelting, refining and
production, yet Tzachili suggests that typological and metallurgical
approaches should be combined. A discussion of the EBA Petralona hoard
is a noteworthy contribution since it is not well published and because
hoarding is a significant EBA (in addition to LBA) activity. In
concluding the volume, Tzachili (327-329) considers the problem of
Minoan ore sources and asserts the necessity for further research.
Crete lacks ore sources by modern mining standards; however, it is
possible that there were suitable ore sources in antiquity, as Tzachili
discusses in her review of the scant evidence for ancient ores.

Muhly (35-41) provides an enlightening historiographic review of Minoan
archaeometallurgy. Although archaeometallurgy is a 'very high-tech
research field', the basic research goals and questions (compositional,
provenance and ore source issues) remain the same today as they were in
the late 19th century (35). The 20th century saw two important
developments in the investigation of the provenance of metals through
elemental analysis: the Studien zu den Anfaengen der Metallurgie, or
SAM Project, and lead isotope analysis. Muhly believes that the papers
from this conference signal a shift in Aegean metallurgy: a change from
elemental analyses to fundamental metallurgical issues including:
mining, initial smelting, re-smelting and refining, casting and
production.

The contributions to the first and largest thematic section, "The First
Steps: Silver, Copper and Arsenical Bronze", read well together and
examine FN-EBA metalwork. Kakavogianni, Douni and Nezeri (45-57) report
exciting discoveries for early Attic silver-working.  As a consequence
of construction work for the Olympic preparations in Attica, a number
of FN-EH I sites were uncovered. The litharge, or lead oxide (PbO)
by-products of cupellation (a process that removes silver from lead
ores), found at these sites verify the existence of early
silver-working. . The most significant site, FN-EH I Lambrika (Koropi),
yielded large amounts of litharge, suggesting an organized workshop.
Morphological variations of litharge fragments imply that different
cupellation methods were used. As this material is relatively new, the
article leaves many questions unanswered, yet early Attic metalworking
seems remarkable.

Papadopoulos (59-67) presents similar evidence for cupellation at
Limenaria (southwestern Thasos) during the early 4th millennium BC.
Litharge fragments, an early silver pin, and argentiferous lead ores
from the island indicate that silver was extracted from local ores and
was worked in the FN period. EBA metalworking at Limenaria expanded to
copper production reminiscent of that found in the southern Aegean,
which is attested by significant quantities of slag, cupriferous
iron-ore fragments and a metal-working clay crucible. It is assumed
that the copper-bearing ores were of local origin, however, this does
not seem to have been proven.

The earliest stage of Minoan metal consumption in the form of arsenical
copper is evident in Muhly's discussion of the Ayia Photia cemetery
(69-74). There is a strong Cycladic cultural presence within the
cemetery, yet it is unclear whether the metalwork from the burial
ground is Minoan or Cycladic. Muhly proposes an EM I date for the Ayia
Photia metalwork, which he considers more Minoan in nature. There are
some metallurgical connections to the Cyclades in the cemetery
including the appearance of silver, lead and two Cycladic-like
crucibles, yet it remains unclear whether the Ayia Photia metalwork was
local or imported since the EM I cemetery would predate most Cycladic
metallurgical evidence.

Vasilakis' paper on Minoan silver-working considers the craft from the
FN to the LM III (75-85). Numerous illustrations and photographs detail
the development of and preferences for silver objects on Crete.
Jewelry, personal implements, vessels and weapons comprise the artifact
types, and the silver technology clearly becomes more elaborate over
time. The article, however, lacks interpretative analysis and the data
resemble a general catalogue, which is disappointing considering the
paucity of scholarship on Minoan silver-working.

Gale, Kayafa and Stos-Gale (87-104) examine the role of metallurgy in
EH Attica. Metallurgical remains and metal objects found at Raphina and
Askitario in the 1950s are reported and analyzed. Evidence for
metallurgical activity at these eastern Attic coastal sites includes
slag, tuye\res, stone moulds and perforated furnace fragments. Slag
analysis confirms that cupriferous ores were smelted at Raphina;
furthermore, the furnace temperature reached 1200 degrees Celsius, an
advantageous temperature for tapping slag. Lead isotope analysis
reveals that EH II smelting at Raphina employed Lavrion ores, which are
also attested in Crete and Thera. The article emphasizes the importance
of metalworking in EBA Attica and the key metallurgical position of
Lavrion throughout prehistory.

Betancourt (105-111) describes the important FN to EM III/ MMIA
smelting site at Chrysokamino, Crete. The Chrysokamino metallurgical
evidence includes perforated chimney and bowl furnace fragments, a
tuye\re, pot bellows, copper prills, slag and small pieces of copper
and iron ore. Flow lines within slag fragments indicate that slag was
tapped out of the furnace for retrieval purposes. Arsenic was detected
within copper prills, indicating that arsenic was added, either
accidently or deliberately, during smelting. The Chrysokamino furnace
produced impure copper at a limited level. The specialized nature of
the site is emphasized by the fact that the ore was probably imported.
The article by Catapotis, Pryce and Bassiakos (113-121) complements
Betancourt's study. Three experimental smelts were conducted to
investigate Chrysokamino smelting technology. The experiments
demonstrated that perforated chimney walls significantly increased the
temperature within the upper furnace. Experiments also determined that
olive-pressings were not used as fuel and slag was tapped only under
extremely high thermal conditions.

Tselios examines the technological production of metal objects in
Prepalatial Crete through metallographic analysis (123- 129). The
structures of EM weapons and tools were examined through investigation
of polished thin sections taken from the objects' cutting edges.
Combinations of casting, hammering and annealing were detected, thus
shedding light on production and repair sequences. Variations in
metallographic examination may reveal divergent functions and values
for the objects. The potential of metallographic studies is
wide-ranging as the method essentially examines production and
use-wear.

The next five papers are grouped within "The Minoan Metallurgical
Tradition" and primarily deal with the 2nd millennium. Gillis and
Clayton (133-142) once again address the perplexing tin conundrum. They
also provide analytical results of tin isotope studies, include an
extensive tin bibliography and suggest future avenues of research. The
authors hoped that tin isotope analysis would enlighten provenance
issues, yet tin fingerprinting remains unlikely. Different tin sources
were shown to produce variant isotopic ratios, yet experimental work is
necessary to verify the stability of tin isotopes throughout
metallurgical procedures. If tin isotopes are unchangeable, tin studies
could expand with the examination of tin within bronze objects.

Two articles assess the metalworking industry at Neopalatial Mochlos by
discussing recently excavated material. Soles (143-156) highlights 10
LM I metal hoards ranging from foundry hoards, traders' hoards and
ceremonial assemblages. Two hoards, however, contain a single metal
object and should not be classified as hoards in my opinion. Lead
isotope analyses indicate that copper oxhide ingots and fragments from
these hoards originated in Cyprus. This information refutes previous
notions that Cypriot copper first reached Crete during the 13th
century. Soles believes that the foreign finds at Mochlos mirror the
later Uluburun cargo, revealing that 14th century trade routes may have
originated during the Neopalatial period. Brogan's article (157-167)
assesses the craft organization of metal-working prior to the
construction of the LM IB artisans' quarter, where metal objects were
cast and hammered at a household level. Metallurgical remains are now
attested from the main settlement at Mochlos including bellows, slag,
crucibles, tongs, moulds, unworked copper strips, stone tools and
pumice. The new metallurgical evidence indicates that craft activity
was dispersed throughout the site prior to the artisan's quarter. The
combination of the metallurgical remains and hoards will revise views
of the metallurgical activities at Mochlos.

A single paper discusses Aegean gold working: Papasavvas (169-181)
examines the LM IA-B gold ring from Syme Viannou and considers the
manufacture of signet rings. Although signet rings appear cast solid,
the Syme ring (type IV) consists of manipulated gold sheets joined by
hard soldering. The bezel was made of the two gold sheets encapsulating
a pitch or resin core, which enabled detailed impressions on the gold
surface through the implementation of hand and hammer burins. The
delicate nature of engraving and soldering testifies to the precision
and fine workmanship of Minoan artisans.

La Marle's discussion (183-193) of the relationship between
technological shifts and lexical usage in Linear A is intriguing, yet
difficult to assess for non-linguists. La Marle asserts that Linear A
lexical groups relate to different copper-alloys and that shifts in
lexical usage mirror copper-alloy changes. Fundamental to La Marle's
argument is his theory that Linear A is an Indo-Iranian language.[[3]]
As Linear A decipherments are contentious,[[4]] the validity of
multiple Linear A words representing various metal combinations is
highly questionable.

Two papers in the "Quantitative Assessments" section highlight the
diachronic developments in Aegean metallurgy based upon patterns
gleaned from large databases. Hakulin (197-209) considers metallurgical
changes on LM Crete through an examination of tools, weapons, vessels,
cultic and personal objects from various contexts. The majority of
bronze objects are from the Neopalatial period, when tools are the most
common bronze item, settlements are the typical context and stone
moulds are the preferred casting method. Following the Neopalatial
period, dominant preferences shift toward weapons, burials and lost-wax
casting, possibly reflecting the Mycenaean presence on the island.
Kayafa's paper is the only entry that considers Mycenaean metallurgy in
any detail (211-223). A massive database (17,500 objects) was compiled
of prehistoric Peloponnesian copper-based objects, mostly from
settlements, burials and hoards. This diachronic assessment enables one
to consider a range of questions that deal with temporal and regional
consumption patterns and possible socio-cultural changes. The greatest
quantity of copper-based objects occurs during the LH III period, when
preferences shift from copper-based luxury to functional objects.

The trade of metals, and specifically copper oxhide ingots, mandates
the inclusion of the Central and Eastern Mediterranean in the study of
Aegean metallurgy, as evident in "The Wider Mediterranean Context"
section. Lo Schiavo (227-245) reviews the archaeological context for
oxhide ingots in Sardinia, Sicily, Corsica and southern France,
provides an extensive bibliography and updates the picture with recent
finds. An intriguing hypothesis is postulated: Nuragic (Sardinian)
ships were responsible for traveling east and acquiring Aegean and
Eastern Mediterranean goods, highlighted by Cypriot oxhide ingots.
Although this theory cannot be proven, miniature Sardinian bronze boats
may reflect the significance of Nuragic ships. A brief postlude to Lo
Schiavo's article (Farinetti: 246-248) reports the creation of a
digital archive known as Oxhide, which will catalogue all Central
Mediterranean oxhide ingots and their analytical results. The
completion and publication of this project will be a welcome addition
for scholars interested in the consumption and exchange of
Mediterranean metals.

Kassianidou presents intriguing evidence that revises old assumptions
for Cypriot metallurgy during the MC - LC period (249-267).
Kassianidou rightly proposes that primitive copper smelting developed
in the MC period (Ambelikou, Alambra, Kalopsidha, Pyrgos and Katydata),
and became more advanced by the early LC period with the creation of
tuye\res at Politiko-Phorades and Enkomi. LC I Politiko-Phorades was a
specialized smelting site that transformed copper sulphide ores to
matte; further matte refining was necessary to produce pure copper. The
traditional picture of early Cypriot metallurgy as being rather limited
has been transformed to include the probable exportation of copper to
Crete in the MC-LC I period.  This scenario confirms recent lead
isotope analysis suggesting Cypriot origins for metal objects dating to
the LM IB (Mochlos and Gournia) and MM IIB (Malia) periods.

Four papers in "Technological Questions" demonstrate various scientific
approaches for analyzing ancient metals. Alloys are discussed
throughout the monograph, but Papadimitriou (271-287) provides a
helpful diachronic view of prehistoric alloy use and development. The
change in forming techniques, such as casting and hard-working, are
considered through metallographic analysis. The castability and desired
hardness of the object affect both the selected alloy and the formation
technique. Different alloys have divergent effects on the final product
revealing specific, technical choices to the bronzesmith. Cultural and
technological needs understandably dictated the proliferation of
variant copper-alloy types.

Exciting new possibilities for archaeometallurgical studies are
discussed by Anglos et al. (289-296). An innovative, transportable
machine, Element One (LMNTI), has been designed to analyze metallic
objects in-situ with minimal damage. The machine employs laser-induced
breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) to assess metallic elemental
compositions. EM-MM metal finds, primarily copper-based, from Ayios
Charalambos cave were analyzed with this new technology and the
elemental compositions were reported. One limitation of LIBS, however,
is that elements are not evaluated quantifiably. The potential
application of a transportable instrument to acquire metallic elemental
information in the field is an exciting development for Aegean
prehistory and archaeometallurgy.

Compositional analysis of metal finds from LM III Armenoi is reported
by Kallithrakas-Kontos and Maravelaki-Kalaitzaki (297-303). Energy
Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence (EDXRF) is a non-destructive analytical
technique for assessing elemental characterization of metals. The
strength of the paper is the demonstration of non-destructive EDXRF
analysis for metallic elemental composition and the application of
infra-red spectroscopy (FTIR) for conservation purposes of corroded
areas. The identification of two tin beads increases the number of
Aegean tin objects, yet only 11 objects were examined from Armenoi and
the overall importance of the cemetery's metals is vague.

Hein and Kilikoglou address the thermal aspects related to smelting
(305-313). Ceramic elements of the smelting process, (furnace bowls and
chimneys, crucibles and tuye\res) needed to withstand the high smelting
temperatures. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) enabled analysis of
ceramic thin-sections which revealed vitrification levels and
corresponding firing temperatures. In order to gauge the thermal levels
within the furnace, finite element analysis (FEA) was employed to
produce a computer model of heat transfer on the furnace's ceramic
elements. The paper emphasizes the value of computer modeling in
ascertaining pyrotechnological smelting details.

Karimali stresses that future research must consider undervalued,
parallel industries associated with metallurgy, such as lithics
(315-325). Although some stone instruments (flat axes) served as
prototypes for metallic versions, lithic production did not languish
with the initial appearance of metallic implements. Stone tools used
for cutting, paring and piercing (axes, adzes, chisels, drills, knives,
sickles and pointed implements) were preferred over metal types in the
FN and EBA periods, while metal versions essentially displaced stone
types by the MBA and LBA. Other stone tools, however, such as hammers,
grinding stones, mortars, pestles and querns were never supplanted by
metal types. The relationship of coexistence or replacement between
stone and metal tools seems influenced by elite associations with
carpentry, stone masonry and weaponry.

For a volume on Aegean metallurgy, there is a dearth of papers dealing
with the Cyclades and the Mycenaean mainland, as the publication is
very Minoan-centric, thus reflecting current research. The lack of
Mycenaean metallurgical studies, however, is surprising considering the
high number of Pylian bronzesmiths in the Linear B records and the
quantity of Mycenaean copper-based objects from the Peloponnese.[[5]] A
concise glossary detailing the various technical approaches would have
aided non-archaeometallurgists, and there are numerous typographical
errors throughout the monograph. These criticisms, however, do not
detract from the volume's worthwhile informative discussions and
important metallurgical revelations.

Table of Contents:
1. Iris Tzachili. Aegean Metallurgy in the Bronze Age: Recent
Developments, 7-33.
2. James D. Muhly. An Introduction to Minoan Archaeometallurgy, 35-41.

The First Steps: Silver, Copper and Arsenical Bronze
3. Olga Kakavogianni, Kerasia Douni and Fotini Nezeri. Silver
Metallurgical Finds dating from the End of the Final Neolithic Period
until the Middle Bronze Age in the Area of Mesogeia,  45-57.
4. Stratis Papadopoulos. Silver and Copper Production Practices in the
Prehistoric Settlement at Limenaria, Thasos, 59-67.
5. James D. Muhly. Ayia Photia and the Cycladic Element in Early Minoan
Metallurgy, 69-74.
6. Andonis Vasilakis. Silver Metalworking in Prehistoric Crete. An
Historical Survey, 75-85.
7. Noel H. Gale, Maria Kayafa and Zofia A. Stos-Gale. Early Helladic
Metallurgy at Raphina, Attica, and the Role of Lavrion, 87-104.
8. Philip P. Betancourt. The Copper Smelting Workshop at Chrysokamino:
Reconstructing the Smelting Process, 105-111.
9. Mihalis Catapotis, Oli Pryce and Yannis Bassiakos. Preliminary
Results from an Experimental Study of Perforated Copper-smelting Shaft
Furnaces from Chrysokamino (Eastern Crete), 113-121.
10. Thomas Tselios. Pre-palatial Copper Metalworking in the Mesara
Plain, Crete, 123- 129.

The Minoan Metallurgical Tradition
11. Carole Gillis and Robin Clayton. Tin and the Aegean in the Bronze
Age, 133-142.
12. Jeffrey Soles. Metal Hoards from LM IB Mochlos, Crete, 143-156.
13. Thomas M. Brogan. Metalworking at Mochlos before the Appearance of
the Artisans' Quarters, 157-167.
14. George Papasavvas. A Closer Look at the Technology of some Minoan
Gold Rings, 169-181.
15. Hubert La Marle. Minoan metallurgy and Linear A: Definitions,
Lexical Slides and Technological Changes, 183-193.

Quantitative Assessments
16. Lena Hakulin. Bronzeworking on Late Minoan Crete: An Overview based
on Published Data, 197-209.
17. Maria Kayafa. Copper-based Artefacts in the Bronze Age Peloponnese:
A Quantitative Approach to Metal Consumption, 211-223.

The Wider Mediterranean Context
18. Fulvia Lo Schiavo. Oxhide Ingots in the Central Mediterranean:
Recent Perspectives, 227-245.
Emeri Farinetti. A Digital Archive for Oxhide Ingots, 246-248.
19. Vasiliki Kassianidou. The Formative Years of the Cypriot Copper
Industry, 249-267.

Technological Questions
20. George Papadimitriou. The Technological Evolution of Copper Alloys
in the Aegean during the Prehistoric Period, 271-287.
21. Demetrios Anglos, James D. Muhly, Susan C. Ferrence, Krystalia
Melessanaki,
Anastasia Giakoumaki, Stephania Chlouveraki and Philip P. Betancourt.
LIBS Analysis of Metalwork from the Ayios Charalambos Cave, 289-296.
22. Nikos Kallithrakas-Kontos and Noni Maravelaki-Kalaitzaki. EDXRF
Study of Late Minoan Metal Artworks, 297-303.
23. Anno Hein and Vassilis Kilikoglou. Finite Element Analysis (FEA) of
Metallurgical Ceramics Assessment of their Thermal Behaviour, 305-313.
24. Lia Karimali. Lithic and Metal Tools in the Bronze Age Aegean: a
Parallel Relationship, 315-325.
25. Iris Tzachili. An Addendum: Were there Sources of Metal Ores on
Crete or not? 327-329.
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Notes:


1.   The importance of arsenical copper was first observed by Zenghelis
in the early 20th century and re-emphasized in the mid-1960s by Renfrew
and Charles, yet today there is a better understanding of the
proliferation of arsenical copper throughout the Aegean in the late 4th
and 3rd millennia. For the fundamental studies on arsenical copper see:
Zenghelis, C. 1905. "Sur le bronze pre/historique,' in Me/langes
Nicole, 603-610; Renfrew, C. 1967. "Cycladic Metallurgy and the Aegean
Early Bronze Age," AJA 71, 1-20; Charles, J.A. 1967. "Early Arsenical
Bronzes: A Metallurgical View," AJA 71, 21-26.

2.   Day, P.M. and R.C.P. Doonan (eds.). 2007. Metallurgy in the Early
Bronze Age. Sheffield studies in Aegean archaeology, 7, xi. Oxford:
Oxbow Books.

3.   La Marle, H. 2000. Introduction au Line/aire A; 1996-1999.
Line/aire A. la premie\re e/criture syllabique de Cre\te. 4 volumes.
Paris: Paul Geuthner.

4.   Bennett, E. 1985. "Linear A Houses of Cards," in Pepragmena tou E'
Diethnous Kritologikou Synedriou (Agios Nikolaos, 25 Septemvriou - 1
Oktovriou 1981), edited by T. Detorakis, 47-56. Irakleios, Kritis:
Etairia Kirtikon Isotorikon Meleton.

5.   For references regarding the number of bronzesmiths at Pylos, see:
Gillis, C. 1997. "The Smith in the Late Bronze Age: State Employee,
Independent Artisan, or Both?" in TEXNH: Craftsmen, Craftswomen, and
Craftsmanship in the Aegean Bronze Age. Proceedings of the 6th
International Aegean Conference. Philadelphia, Temple University, 18-21
April 1996. Aegaeum 16, edited by R. Laffineur and P. Betancourt, 506
note 5. Lie\ge: Universite/ de Lie\ge.